Skip Navigation
Skip to contents

JMD : Journal of Movement Disorders

OPEN ACCESS
SEARCH
Search
Advanced Search
mobile menu button

Articles

Page Path
HOME > J Mov Disord > Volume 9(1); 2016 > Article
Original Article
 Can Postural Instability Respond to Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease?
Hiroshi Kataoka1*, Yohei Okada2*, Takao Kiriyama1, Yorihiro Kita2, Junji Nakamura2, Shu Morioka2, Koji Shomoto2, Satoshi Ueno1
Journal of Movement Disorders 2016;9(1):40-43.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14802/jmd.15030
Published online: December 3, 2015
  • 21,786 Views
  • 192 Download
  • 33 Crossref

1Department of Neurology, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan

2Graduate School of Health Science, Kio University, Nara, Japan

Corresponding author: Hiroshi Kataoka, MD, PhD, Department of Neurology, Nara Medical University, 840 Shijo-cho, Kashihara, Nara 634-8522, Japan / Tel: +81-744-29-8860 / Fax: +81-744-24-6065 / E-mail: hk55@naramed-u.ac.jp
*Kataoka H and Okada Y contributed to equally to this work.
• Received: July 30, 2015   • Revised: September 5, 2015   • Accepted: September 25, 2015

Copyright © 2016 The Korean Movement Disorder Society

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Full Article

Download PDF Download PDF

  • Objective
    Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) activates the vestibular afferents, and these changes in vestibular input exert a strong influence on the subject’s posture or standing balance. In patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD), vestibular dysfunction might contribute to postural instability and gait disorders.
  • Methods
    Current intensity was increased to 0.7 mA, and the current was applied to the patients for 20 minutes. To perform a sham stimulation, the current intensity was increased as described and then decreased to 0 mA over the course of 10 seconds. The patient’s status was recorded continuously for 20 minutes with the patient in the supine position.
  • Results
    Three out of 5 patients diagnosed with PD with postural instability and/or abnormal axial posture showed a reduction in postural instability after GVS. The score for item 12 of the revised Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale part 3 was decreased in these patients.
  • Conclusions
    The mechanism of postural instability is complex and not completely understood. In 2 out of the 5 patients, postural instability was not changed in response to GVS. Nonetheless, the GVS-induced change in postural instability for 3 patients in our study suggests that GVS might be a therapeutic option for postural instability.
  • Keywords: Parkinson; Galvanic vestibular stimulation; Vestibular stimulation; Postural instability; Vestibular dysfunction; Posture.
Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) involves transcranial direct current stimulation, which stimulates and inhibits the vestibular afferents on the side of the negative (cathode) and positive (anode) electrodes [1,2]. These changes in vestibular input exert a strong influence on the subject’s posture [3-5] and standing balance [6]. More recently, we reported that the severity of a bending posture was diminished by GVS [3]. Here, to determine whether the postural instability improves after GVS, we studied 5 patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) that presented with a lateral trunk flexion or a camptocormia and that had postural instability, as defined by a score of 3 on item 12 of the revised Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) part 3 [7].
All 5 patients fulfilled the UK Parkinson’s Disease Society Brain Bank criteria [8]. Two patients had mild lateral trunk flexion, and the other three patients had camptocormia. No patient had a history of neurosurgery or otorhinolaryngeal illness.
Binaural monopolar GVS was performed using devices described previously (Chattanooga Intelect Advanced Combo, DJO Global, Vista, CA, USA) [3,4]. In patients with a lateral trunk flexion, binaural bipolar GVS was used, i.e., a 10.2-cm2 cathode electrode was located ipsilateral to the lateral trunk flexion, and a 10.2-cm2 anode electrode was located on the contralateral side. In the patient with a camptocormia, pairs of 10.2-cm2 cathode and anode electrodes were placed over both mastoid processes and trapezius muscles. The current intensity was increased to 0.7 mA, and the current was applied for 20 minutes with the patient in the supine position. For the sham stimulation, the first procedure was same, but the current intensity was subsequently ramped down to 0 mA over the course of 10 seconds, and this status was continued for 20 minutes. Either one of these procedures was randomly assigned to each patient. At the same time, 1 week after the initial procedure the other procedure was performed again in the same patient. Neurologists who were blind to all clinical information and the status of GVS performed a pull test according to item 12 of the revised UPDRS part 3 [7]. Briefly, the examiner instructed the patient to stand erect with eyes open and feet comfortably apart and parallel to each other. There was a solid wall at least 1 to 2 meters behind the examiner. The examiner informed the patient of testing process and explained that the patient was allowed to take a step backwards to avoid falling. First, the examiner then delivered a quick, forceful pull on the shoulders of the patient. The pull is purposely mild and not rated. Second, the shoulders were pulled briskly and forcefully towards the examiner. The pull test was performed approximately 10 minutes after the stimulation. All of the patients were completely aware and understood the proceedings, as confirmed by personal interviews. The score for item 12 of the revised UPDRS part 3 [7] was determined before and after GVS. The average anterior and lateral bending angles while the patient was standing with their eyes open for 30 s were measured as described previously [3]. For the postural evaluation, the patients were instructed to stand comfortably with their feet 10 cm apart and with their arms along their trunk. To evaluate the anterior and lateral bending angles, we captured the patients’ sagittal and frontal posture using two digital video cameras and conducted a frame-by-frame video analysis. The anterior and lateral bending angles were calculated as the angles formed between the line joining the marker positioned on the C7 spinous process and the midpoints of the right and left posterior superior iliac spine, and the vertical reference lines in the sagittal and frontal planes. The values were calculated every 30 frames and then averaged. The protocol of this study was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of Nara Medical University and Kio University, and written informed consent was obtained from all subjects.
Postural instability retropulsion was evident both before and after sham stimulation in patient 1, 2, and 3. After true GVS, the frequency of the retropulsion decreased in patient 1, 2, and 3, and the score for item 12 of the revised UPDRS part 3 [7] at the time of the highest postural instability changed from 3 to 0 in patient 1, 3 to 1 in patient 2, and 3 to 0 in patient 3 (Supplementary Video in the online-only Data Supplement). Detailed clinical information on the patients is shown in Table 1. In the other 2 patients, the severity of postural instability was unchanged after true GVS. The average lateral bending angles in patients 1 and 2 did not decrease, and the average anterior bending angle in patient 3 was mildly decreased. The other 2 patients showed mildly decreased lateral bending angles.
Our three patients showed a reduction in postural instability after GVS. Patients with PD have processing abnormalities in sensorimotor integration and organization that affect postural stability [9]. Postural stability depends on the appropriate integration of not only visual and somatosensory input but also vestibular information [10]. In patients with PD, vestibular disorders have been reported [4,11]. Several studies have investigated the relationship between vestibular dysfunction and postural instability and found that vestibular dysfunction was unrelated to postural deficits in patients with mild or moderate PD [12]. However, patients with PD have an abnormal vestibulocolic reflex and an impaired vestibulo-ocular reflex, which suggests that vestibular dysfunction contributes to postural instability and gait disorders [10]. Yamamoto et al. [13] reported that axial motor function was improved after stimulation of vestibular nerves by GVS in patients with parkinsonism. The vestibular dysfunction was ipsilateral to the lateral trunk flexion with PD, and dysfunction of vestibular control related to posture might be responsible for postural instability in PD [4], but the severity of the lateral trunk flexion or camptocormia in our patients was apparently not reduced after GVS. The vestibular afferent fibers send axons to the cerebellar vermis via the vestibular nuclei [14,15], which exerts a strong effect on the turnover of dopamine in the caudate and nucleus accumbens through the ventral tegmental area [16,17]. GVS activates the vestibular afferents, and the vestibular nerves influence the basal ganglia and limbic system [16,17] via the cerebellar vermis [14,15]. Positron emission tomographic studies in humans have shown activation in the putamen in response to vestibular stimulation [18,19]. In addition, vestibular afferents project to the basal ganglia, and outputs from the basal ganglia are directed to the brain stem, including the pedunculopontine nucleus and spinal cord [20]. GVS may activate these extrapyramidal connections through the vestibular nerves, leading to increased axial motor function and improving postural instability.
One limitation of this study is that part 3 alone of the pull test of the revised UPDRS is not enough to objectively quantify the magnitude of improvement in postural instability because of its poor test-retest reliability. A second limitation was the small sample size.
The mechanism of postural instability is complex and not completely understood. In fact, although 3 patients did respond to GVS, the postural instability of 2 other patients did not respond. However, the positive responses of those 3 patients suggest that GVS might be a therapeutic option for postural instability.
The online-only Data Supplement is available with this article at http://dx.doi.org/10.14802/jmd.15030.

Supplementary Video Legends

Videos A and B were obtained before and after true galvanic vestibular stimulation, and videos C and D were obtained before and after sham stimulation. The severity of the postural instability was reduced after true galvanic vestibular stimulation (B), but not after sham stimulation (D) (http://dx.doi.org/10.14802/jmd.15030.v001).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors have no financial conflicts of interest.

We are extremely grateful to Dr. Kazuma Sugie and Dr. Mari Terashima (Department of Neurology, Nara Medical University) for providing the subjects for the present study.
This research was supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists B (25750246).
Table 1.
Clinical features of 5 patients with Parkinson’s disease
Patient 1 Patient 2 Patient 3 Patient 4 Patient 5
Age/sex 69/F 73/F 66/F 63/M 72/F
Disease duration (years) 4.5 7 14 10.5 20
Hoehn-Yahr stage 3 4 4 3 3
UPDRS part 3 34 32 13 18 30
Onset’s feature Left tremor Right tremor Gait difficulty Akinesia Right tremor
History of hallucinations - + - - +
History of falls - + + + +
Wfearing-off - + + - +
Dyskinesia - - - - -
Lumbago pain - - + + +
Abnormal posture LTF LTF Cam Cam LTF
Duration of the abnormal posture (m) 11 9 6.9 years 2 years 4 years
Daily treatment during the study (dose/d)
 Levodopa 300 mg 200 mg 550 mg 300 mg 200 mg
 Pramipexole 1.5 mg 1.5 mg 3 mg - 1.5 mg
 Ropinirole - - - 6 mg -
 Bromocriptine - - 5 mg - -
 Selegiline - - - 2.5 mg -
 Trihexyphenidyl - 6 mg 2 mg - 6 mg
 Amantadine - 150 mg - - 150 mg
 Entacapone - 200 mg - 100 mg 200 mg
 Zonisamide - - - 25 mg -
 Istradefylline - 40 mg - - 40 mg
 Neuroleptics - Rivastigmine (18 mg/d), quetiapine (12.5 mg/d) - - -
First stimulation Sham GVS GVS GVS Sham
UPDRS part 3, item 12
 Before GVS stimulation 3 3 3 3 3
 After GVS stimulation 0 1 0 3 3
Postural abnormality
 Before GVS stimulation (degree) 5.94 2.31 49.70 57.49 5.82
 After GVS stimulation (degree) 6.18 3.01 46.90 55.25 3.86

UPDRS: Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale, LTF: lateral trunk flexion, Cam: camptocormia, GVS: galvanic vestibular stimulation, Sham: sham stimulation, m: months, d: day.

  • 1. Minor LB, Goldberg JM. Vestibular-nerve inputs to the vestibulo-ocular reflex: a functional-ablation study in the squirrel monkey. J Neurosci 1991;11:1636–1648.ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 2. Goldberg JM, Smith CE, Fernàndez C. Relation between discharge regularity and responses to externally applied galvanic currents in vestibular nerve afferents of the squirrel monkey. J Neurophysiol 1984;51:1236–1256.ArticlePubMed
  • 3. Okada Y, Kita Y, Nakamura J, Kataoka H, Kiriyama T, Ueno S, et al. Galvanic vestibular stimulation may improve anterior bending posture in Parkinson’s disease. Neuroreport 2015;26:405–410.ArticlePubMed
  • 4. Vitale C, Marcelli V, Furia T, Santangelo G, Cozzolino A, Longo K, et al. Vestibular impairment and adaptive postural imbalance in parkinsonian patients with lateral trunk flexion. Mov Disord 2011;26:1458–1463.ArticlePubMed
  • 5. Okada Y, Kita Y, Nakamura J, Tanizawa M, Morimoto S, Shomoto K, et al. Galvanic vestibular stimulation for camptocormia in Parkinson’s disease: a case report. J Nov Physiother 2012;S1–001.Article
  • 6. Tax CM, Bom AP, Taylor RL, Todd N, Cho KK, Fitzpatrick RC, et al. The galvanic whole-body sway response in health and disease. Clin Neurophysiol 2013;124:2036–2045.ArticlePubMed
  • 7. Goetz CG, Tilley BC, Shaftman SR, Stebbins GT, Fahn S, Martinez-Martin P, et al. Movement Disorder Society-sponsored revision of the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS): scale presentation and clinimetric testing results. Mov Disord 2008;23:2129–2170.ArticlePubMed
  • 8. Hughes AJ, Daniel SE, Kilford L, Lees AJ. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease: a clinicopathological study of 100 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992;55:181–184.ArticlePubMedPMC
  • 9. Benatru I, Vaugoyeau M, Azulay JP. Postural disorders in Parkinson’s disease. Neurophysiol Clin 2008;38:459–465.ArticlePubMed
  • 10. Vaugoyeau M, Viel S, Assaiante C, Amblard B, Azulay JP. Impaired vertical postural control and proprioceptive integration deficits in Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience 2007;146:852–863.ArticlePubMed
  • 11. Pollak L, Prohorov T, Kushnir M, Rabey M. Vestibulocervical reflexes in idiopathic Parkinson disease. Neurophysiol Clin 2009;39:235–240.ArticlePubMed
  • 12. Pastor MA, Day BL, Marsden CD. Vestibular induced postural responses in Parkinson’s disease. Brain 1993;116(Pt 5):1177–1190.ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 13. Yamamoto Y, Struzik ZR, Soma R, Ohashi K, Kwak S. Noisy vestibular stimulation improves autonomic and motor responsiveness in central neurodegenerative disorders. Ann Neurol 2005;58:175–181.ArticlePubMed
  • 14. Barmack NH. Central vestibular system: vestibular nuclei and posterior cerebellum. Brain Res Bull 2003;60:511–541.ArticlePubMed
  • 15. Newlands SD, Perachio AA. Central projections of the vestibular nerve: a review and single fiber study in the Mongolian gerbil. Brain Res Bull 2003;60:475–495.ArticlePubMed
  • 16. Albert TJ, Dempesy CW, Sorenson CA. Anterior cerebellar vermal stimulation: effect on behavior and basal forebrain neurochemistry in rat. Biol Psychiatry 1985;20:1267–1276.ArticlePubMed
  • 17. Anderson CM, Polcari A, Lowen SB, Renshaw PF, Teicher MH. Effects of methylphenidate on functional magnetic resonance relaxometry of the cerebellar vermis in boys with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:1322–1328.ArticlePubMed
  • 18. Bottini G, Paulesu E, Sterzi R, Warburton E, Wise RJ, Vallar G, et al. Modulation of conscious experience by peripheral sensory stimuli. Nature 1995;376:778–781.ArticlePubMedPDF
  • 19. Bottini G, Sterzi R, Paulesu E, Vallar G, Cappa SF, Erminio F, et al. Identification of the central vestibular projections in man: a positron emission tomography activation study. Exp Brain Res 1994;99:164–169.ArticlePubMed
  • 20. Visser JE, Bloem BR. Role of the basal ganglia in balance control. Neural Plast 2005;12:161–174.discussion 263-272. ArticlePubMedPMCPDF

Figure & Data

References

    Citations

    Citations to this article as recorded by  
    • Impact of galvanic vestibular stimulation electrode current density on brain current flow patterns: Does electrode size matter?
      Dennis Q. Truong, Alexander Guillen, Mujda Nooristani, Maxime Maheu, Francois Champoux, Abhishek Datta, Mohammad Ali Salehinejad
      PLOS ONE.2023; 18(2): e0273883.     CrossRef
    • The Effectiveness of Electrical Vestibular Stimulation (VeNS) on Symptoms of Anxiety: Study Protocol of a Randomized, Double-Blinded, Sham-Controlled Trial
      Teris Cheung, Joyce Yuen Ting Lam, Kwan Hin Fong, Yuen Shan Ho, Alex Ho, Calvin Pak-Wing Cheng, Julie Sittlington, Yu-Tao Xiang, Tim Man Ho Li
      International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2023; 20(5): 4218.     CrossRef
    • Acceptability and feasibility of a vestibular nerve stimulation headset protocol in children with cerebral palsy
      Karen McConnell, Daniel Topley, Jason McKeown, Claire Kerr
      BMC Pediatrics.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
    • Effect of galvanic vestibular stimulation on axial symptoms in Parkinson’s disease
      Hiroshi Kataoka, Yohei Okada, Takao Kiriyama, Yorihiro Kita, Junji Nakamura, Koji Shomoto, Kazuma Sugie
      Journal of Central Nervous System Disease.2022; 14: 117957352210815.     CrossRef
    • Galvanic vestibular stimulation and its applications: a systematic review
      Anna Paula Batista de Ávila Pires, Tatiana Rocha Silva, Maíra Soares Torres, Maria Luiza Diniz, Maurício Campelo Tavares, Denise Utsch Gonçalves
      Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology.2022; 88: S202.     CrossRef
    • Detection and assessment of Parkinson's disease based on gait analysis: A survey
      Yao Guo, Jianxin Yang, Yuxuan Liu, Xun Chen, Guang-Zhong Yang
      Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
    • EFFECT OF VESTIBULAR STIMULATION ON BEHAVIORAL CHANGES IN PARKINSON DISEASE-INDUCED MICE
      Ram Mohan, Mohan Jayabal, Rashmi Ramanathan, Jeevithan Shanmugam, Archana R
      Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research.2022; : 84.     CrossRef
    • IMPACT OF CALORIC VESTIBULAR STIMULATION ON CO-ORDINATION IN PARKINSON DISEASE INDUCED MICE
      RAM MOHAN, KAYALVIZHI, RASHMI RAMANATHAN, JEEVITHAN SHANMUGAM, ARCHANA R.
      International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences.2022; : 46.     CrossRef
    • The effect of galvanic vestibular stimulation on postural balance in Parkinson's disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis
      Mohammad Mahmud, Zaeem Hadi, Mabel Prendergast, Matteo Ciocca, Abdel Rahman Saad, Yuscah Pondeca, Yen Tai, Gregory Scott, Barry M. Seemungal
      Journal of the Neurological Sciences.2022; 442: 120414.     CrossRef
    • A systematic review of vestibular stimulation in cerebral palsy
      Daniel Topley, Karen McConnell, Claire Kerr
      Disability and Rehabilitation.2021; 43(23): 3291.     CrossRef
    • The link between lateral trunk flexion in Parkinson’s disease and vestibular dysfunction: a clinical study
      Haiyan Tang, You Chen, Zhidong Cen, Zhiyuan Ouyang, Danning Lou, Ying Tan, Wei Luo
      International Journal of Neuroscience.2021; 131(6): 521.     CrossRef
    • Vestibular stimulation: a noninvasive brain stimulation in Parkinson’s disease & its implications
      Thanalakshmi Jagadeesan, Archana Rajagopal, Senthilkumar Sivanesan
      Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine.2021; 18(4): 657.     CrossRef
    • Current perspectives on galvanic vestibular stimulation in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease
      Soojin Lee, Aiping Liu, Martin J. McKeown
      Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics.2021; 21(4): 405.     CrossRef
    • Caloric and galvanic vestibular stimulation for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease: rationale and prospects
      David Wilkinson
      Expert Review of Medical Devices.2021; 18(7): 649.     CrossRef
    • Early balance impairment in Parkinson’s Disease: Evidence from Robot-assisted axial rotations
      Alessandro Zampogna, Ilaria Mileti, Francesca Martelli, Marco Paoloni, Zaccaria Del Prete, Eduardo Palermo, Antonio Suppa
      Clinical Neurophysiology.2021; 132(10): 2422.     CrossRef
    • Dizziness in Parkinson’s disease patients is associated with vestibular function
      Jeong-Ho Park, Suk Yun Kang
      Scientific Reports.2021;[Epub]     CrossRef
    • c-Fos Expression after Stochastic Vestibular Stimulation and Levodopa in 6-OHDA Hemilesioned Rats
      Ghazaleh Samoudi, Andrea Nilsson, Thomas Carlsson, Filip Bergquist
      Neuroscience.2020; 424: 146.     CrossRef
    • Sensory Neuromodulation
      Robert D. Black, Lesco L. Rogers
      Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience.2020;[Epub]     CrossRef
    • Efficacy of transmastoidal galvanic stimulation on recovery outcomes in patients with unilateral peripheral vestibular disorders: a randomized controlled trial
      Reham Ali Mohamed Ali Ahmed, Ebtesam Mohamed Fahmy, Amina Mohamed Awad, Mona Mohamed Hamdy, Hussein Ahmed Abd Rahman Shaker
      The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery.2020;[Epub]     CrossRef
    • Effect of caloric vestibular stimulation on brain neurochemicals in rotenone induced mouse model of Parkinson’s disease
      Sai Sailesh Kumar G, Srilatha Bashetti
      International Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Research.2020; 7(1): 49.     CrossRef
    • The Effect of L-dopa on Postural Stability in Parkinson’s Disease Patients
      Jacek Wilczyński, Natalia Habik
      Applied Sciences.2019; 9(3): 409.     CrossRef
    • Receptor Ligands as Helping Hands to L-DOPA in the Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease
      Fabio Bello, Mario Giannella, Gianfabio Giorgioni, Alessandro Piergentili, Wilma Quaglia
      Biomolecules.2019; 9(4): 142.     CrossRef
    • Aplicações dos potenciais evocados miogênicos vestibulares: revisão sistemática de literatura
      Tatiana Rocha Silva, Marco Aurélio Rocha Santos, Luciana Macedo de Resende, Ludimila Labanca, Júlia Fonseca de Morais Caporali, Marjore Rhaissa de Sousa, Denise Utsch Gonçalves
      Audiology - Communication Research.2019;[Epub]     CrossRef
    • Caloric vestibular stimulation for the management of motor and non-motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease
      David Wilkinson, Aleksandra Podlewska, Sarah E. Banducci, Tracy Pellat-Higgins, Martin Slade, Mayur Bodani, Mohamed Sakel, Lanty Smith, Peter LeWitt, Kristen K. Ade
      Parkinsonism & Related Disorders.2019; 65: 261.     CrossRef
    • Deterioration of postural deformity in Parkinson’s disease patients with punding and hobbyism
      Ryoma Aoki, Makoto Shiraishi, Kyohei Mikami, Tsutomu Kamo
      Journal of Clinical Neuroscience.2019; 69: 179.     CrossRef
    • Recent advancements in lateral trunk flexion in Parkinson disease
      Hiroshi Kataoka, Kazuma Sugie
      Neurology: Clinical Practice.2019; 9(1): 74.     CrossRef
    • Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS) Augments Deficient Pedunculopontine Nucleus (PPN) Connectivity in Mild Parkinson's Disease: fMRI Effects of Different Stimuli
      Jiayue Cai, Soojin Lee, Fang Ba, Saurabh Garg, Laura J. Kim, Aiping Liu, Diana Kim, Z. Jane Wang, Martin J. McKeown
      Frontiers in Neuroscience.2018;[Epub]     CrossRef
    • Effects of Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation on Upper and Lower Extremities Motor Symptoms in Parkinson’s Disease
      Mahta Khoshnam, Daniela M. C. Häner, Eunice Kuatsjah, Xin Zhang, Carlo Menon
      Frontiers in Neuroscience.2018;[Epub]     CrossRef
    • Vestibular Functions and Parkinson's Disease
      Paul F. Smith
      Frontiers in Neurology.2018;[Epub]     CrossRef
    • Body Posture, Postural Stability, and Metabolic Age in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease
      Jacek Wilczyński, Agnieszka Pedrycz, Dariusz Mucha, Tadeusz Ambroży, Dawid Mucha
      BioMed Research International.2017; 2017: 1.     CrossRef
    • Vestibular Deficits in Neurodegenerative Disorders: Balance, Dizziness, and Spatial Disorientation
      Thomas Cronin, Qadeer Arshad, Barry M. Seemungal
      Frontiers in Neurology.2017;[Epub]     CrossRef
    • Vestibular neuromodulation: stimulating the neural crossroads of psychiatric illness
      Steven M Miller
      Bipolar Disorders.2016; 18(6): 539.     CrossRef
    • Non-Invasive Neuromodulation Using Time-Varying Caloric Vestibular Stimulation
      Robert D. Black, Lesco L. Rogers, Kristen K. Ade, Heather A. Nicoletto, Heather D. Adkins, Daniel T. Laskowitz
      IEEE Journal of Translational Engineering in Health and Medicine.2016; 4: 1.     CrossRef

    Comments on this article

    Add a comment
    / 1000 characters
    Related articles
    JMD : Journal of Movement Disorders
    © The Korean Movement Disorder Society.